3. Hardware
The CPU and Von Neumann architecture, the fetch–decode–execute cycle, input/output devices, storage and virtual memory.
In the 2029–31 syllabus the CPU and storage become Topic 2; network hardware moves to 3.2–3.3 (now with IPv4/IPv6 and static/dynamic IP), cloud storage models are added and legacy media are removed. What changes in 2029 → · Study the new topics: 2. Logic circuits and hardware, 3. Data transmission and networking, 6. Automated systems and robotics
Statometer96BankerNext Paper 194%Everything for this topic — study hub
O Level / IGCSE · 2210 · 0478 · Paper 1
This topic is rows 8–12 of the study route.Open it on your study route
Statometer — what 25 real papers say about this topic and each of its 5 syllabus bullets
Banker · #2 of 10 in O Level / IGCSE · recomputed with every new session
Set in nearly every paper and worth a big slice of it — revise first, expect it.
- Next Paper 1
- 94%
- 9 in 10 chance it is set
- Marks a paper
- 23.3 / 75
- 31% of Paper 1 · fair share 17%
- Appeared in
- 25 / 25
- Paper 1 sittings 2023–2026
- Last set
- May/Jun 2026
- 0478/13 · Q4 · 3 marks · 11-series streak
What the papers say
- Set in 25 of 25 Paper 1 sittings on the current syllabus — treat it as certain.
- Worth about 23.3 marks a paper (31% of Paper 1, 1.9× its fair share).
- Last set May/Jun 2026 · 0478/13 · Q4 for 3 marks — in the most recent series.
- Set in each of the last 11 series without a miss.
- Steady at around 24 marks a paper year on year.
- Lives on “Give” and “Describe” — 53% of its questions: short, precise answers in syllabus words.
- Most of its marks (86%) come in extended questions of 6+ marks — plan the answer before writing.
- Its biggest question so far: 16 marks (Oct/Nov 2025 · 2210/12 · Q7).
- Inside the topic, §3.2 Input and output devices carries the most marks (34%) and §3.1 CPU performance and embedded systems the least (4%).
- It is examined mostly as AO1 (Knowledge & understanding, 71%) — definitions and descriptions in syllabus words score.
- The examiner has commented on 175 of its questions — read “What the examiner said” before you practise.
- The single biggest share of Paper 1 among its 6 topics.
Command words
Share of questions using the word (a question can use several). What each wants →
Question shapes
- 1–2 mk3
- 3–4 mk37
- 5–6 mk64
- 7–9 mk71
- 10+ mk69
Average 8 marks a question · 17% with a figure or table · 33% with code · biggest 16 marks
Assessment objectives — how it is examined
Every part of every current-syllabus question filed under Cambridge's AO1 / AO2 / AO3 (from its command word and what it asks you to do), so you know whether this topic pays for definitions, for applying, or for judging and building.
- AO1 Knowledge & understanding
- AO2 Apply to a context
- AO3 Evaluate & judge
Paper 1 as a whole
| Paper 1 | Syllabus | Measured |
|---|---|---|
| AO1 Knowledge & understanding | 60% | 64% |
| AO2 Apply to a context | 20% | 24% |
| AO3 Evaluate & judge | 20% | 12% |
Syllabus = Cambridge's grid; measured = the bank's current-syllabus papers.
Inside the topic — every syllabus bullet, measured
Each part of each question is filed under the bullet it examines; the numbers are per Paper 1 sitting, exactly like the topic's. Open a bullet for its own Statometer.
3.1Computer architecture#3 of 20 on Paper 1Banker · 8883% next paper6.3 marks21/25 sittings→ May/Jun 2026Banker · 8883%
6.3 · 27% of topic21/25May/Jun 2026latest series · →Asked in nearly every paper — the bullet to know cold.Syllabus: role of the CPU and the microprocessor; Von Neumann components (ALU, CU, PC, MAR, MDR, CIR, ACC, address/data/control buses); the fetch–decode–execute cycle
- Next Paper 1
- 83%
- 8 in 10
- Marks a paper
- 6.3
- 8% of the paper · 27% of the topic
- Asked in
- 21 / 25
- Paper 1 sittings · 80 questions
- Last asked
- May/Jun 2026
- 0478/13 · Q4 · 3 marks
- Asked in 21 of 25 Paper 1 sittings — about 8 papers in 10.
- About 6.3 marks a paper (8% of Paper 1; 27% of the topic's marks across its 5 bullets).
- Last asked May/Jun 2026 · 0478/13 · Q4 (3 marks) — in the most recent series.
- Usually “Identify” or “Give”: short, precise answers in syllabus words.
- Biggest chunk of marks so far: 10 in May/Jun 2025 · 0478/13 · Q3.
- It is examined mostly as AO1 (Knowledge & understanding, 70%), the rest AO2 (30%) — definitions and descriptions in syllabus words score.
Last 12 sittings→ SteadyAssessment objectives
AO1 70%AO2 30%- AO1 Knowledge & understanding
- AO2 Apply to a context
- AO3 Evaluate & judge
- Identify40%
- Give33%
- Describe31%
- Explain30%
3.1CPU performance and embedded systems#15 of 20 on Paper 1Regular · 4868% next paper2.3 marks17/25 sittings→ May/Jun 2026Regular · 4868%
2.3 · 4% of topic17/25May/Jun 2026latest series · →Set most sessions for a few marks; know the definition and one example.Syllabus: cores, cache and clock speed; the instruction set; purpose and characteristics of embedded systems and where they are used
- Next Paper 1
- 68%
- 7 in 10
- Marks a paper
- 2.3
- 3% of the paper · 4% of the topic
- Asked in
- 17 / 25
- Paper 1 sittings · 23 questions
- Last asked
- May/Jun 2026
- 0478/13 · Q3 · 4.5 marks
- Asked in 17 of 25 Paper 1 sittings — about 7 papers in 10.
- About 2.3 marks a paper (3% of Paper 1; 4% of the topic's marks across its 5 bullets).
- Last asked May/Jun 2026 · 0478/13 · Q3 (4.5 marks) — in the most recent series.
- Usually “Explain” or “Describe”: full sentences with a reason, not one-word answers.
- Biggest chunk of marks so far: 5 in Oct/Nov 2025 · 2210/12 · Q4.
- It is examined mostly as AO1 (Knowledge & understanding, 72%), the rest AO3 (28%) — definitions and descriptions in syllabus words score.
Last 12 sittings→ SteadyAssessment objectives
AO1 72%AO3 28%- AO1 Knowledge & understanding
- AO2 Apply to a context
- AO3 Evaluate & judge
- Explain70%
- Describe61%
- State44%
- Identify44%
3.2Input and output devices#11 of 20 on Paper 1Core · 5864% next paper3.6 marks16/25 sittings↗ May/Jun 2026Core · 5864%
3.6 · 34% of topic16/25May/Jun 2026latest series · ↗A regular earner inside the topic — most papers touch it.Syllabus: input devices (scanners, camera, keyboard, microphone, mouse, touch screens), output devices (printers, projectors, screens, speakers, actuators) and the 14 sensors
- Next Paper 1
- 64%
- 6 in 10
- Marks a paper
- 3.6
- 5% of the paper · 34% of the topic
- Asked in
- 16 / 25
- Paper 1 sittings · 112 questions
- Last asked
- May/Jun 2026
- 0478/13 · Q3 · 3 marks
- Asked in 16 of 25 Paper 1 sittings — about 6 papers in 10.
- About 3.6 marks a paper (5% of Paper 1; 34% of the topic's marks across its 5 bullets).
- Last asked May/Jun 2026 · 0478/13 · Q3 (3 marks) — in the most recent series.
- Rising: 2.7 → 4.2 marks a paper.
- Usually “Identify” or “Describe”: short, precise answers in syllabus words.
- Biggest chunk of marks so far: 10 in Oct/Nov 2025 · 2210/12 · Q7.
- It is examined almost entirely as AO1 (Knowledge & understanding, 81%) — definitions and descriptions in syllabus words score.
Last 12 sittings↗ RisingAssessment objectives
AO1 81%- AO1 Knowledge & understanding
- AO2 Apply to a context
- AO3 Evaluate & judge
- Identify38%
- Describe36%
- Give36%
- Explain31%
3.3Data storage#4 of 20 on Paper 1Banker · 8883% next paper6.2 marks22/25 sittings↘ May/Jun 2026Banker · 8883%
6.2 · 30% of topic22/25May/Jun 2026latest series · ↘Asked in nearly every paper — the bullet to know cold.Syllabus: primary storage (RAM vs ROM), secondary storage (magnetic, optical and solid-state operation), virtual memory, and cloud storage vs local storage
- Next Paper 1
- 83%
- 8 in 10
- Marks a paper
- 6.2
- 8% of the paper · 30% of the topic
- Asked in
- 22 / 25
- Paper 1 sittings · 98 questions
- Last asked
- May/Jun 2026
- 0478/13 · Q1 · 5 marks · 4-series streak
- Asked in 22 of 25 Paper 1 sittings — nearly every paper.
- About 6.2 marks a paper (8% of Paper 1; 30% of the topic's marks across its 5 bullets).
- Last asked May/Jun 2026 · 0478/13 · Q1 (5 marks) — in the most recent series.
- Asked in each of the last 4 series.
- Easing: 7.1 → 5.7 marks a paper.
- Usually “Explain” or “Give”: full sentences with a reason, not one-word answers.
- Biggest chunk of marks so far: 12 in Feb/Mar 2026 · 0478/12 · Q5.
- It is examined mostly as AO1 (Knowledge & understanding, 67%), the rest AO3 (22%) — definitions and descriptions in syllabus words score.
Last 12 sittings↘ EasingAssessment objectives
AO1 67%AO3 22%- AO1 Knowledge & understanding
- AO2 Apply to a context
- AO3 Evaluate & judge
- Explain42%
- Give41%
- Describe36%
- State31%
3.4Network hardware#19 of 20 on Paper 1Occasional · 2226% next paper1.4 marks7/25 sittings↘ Oct/Nov 2025Occasional · 2226%
1.4 · 5% of topic7/25Oct/Nov 20252 series ago · ↘Rotated in occasionally — the bullet students skip and then meet.Syllabus: the network interface card, MAC addresses, IP addresses (IPv4 vs IPv6, static vs dynamic) and the role of a router
- Next Paper 1
- 26%
- 1 in 4
- Marks a paper
- 1.4
- 2% of the paper · 5% of the topic
- Asked in
- 7 / 25
- Paper 1 sittings · 18 questions
- Last asked
- Oct/Nov 2025
- 0478/11 · Q2 · 5 marks · 2 series ago
- Asked in 7 of 25 Paper 1 sittings — roughly one paper in 4.
- About 1.4 marks a paper (2% of Paper 1; 5% of the topic's marks across its 5 bullets).
- Last asked Oct/Nov 2025 · 0478/11 · Q2 (5 marks), 2 seriess ago.
- Easing: 2.3 → 0.9 marks a paper.
- Usually “Describe” or “Identify”: full sentences with a reason, not one-word answers.
- Biggest chunk of marks so far: 7 in Feb/Mar 2025 · 0478/12 · Q5.
- It is examined almost entirely as AO1 (Knowledge & understanding, 91%) — definitions and descriptions in syllabus words score.
Last 12 sittings↘ EasingAssessment objectives
AO1 91%- AO1 Knowledge & understanding
- AO2 Apply to a context
- AO3 Evaluate & judge
- Describe56%
- Identify50%
- Give44%
- Tick39%
15% of the topic's marks sit in question parts that belong to another topic (scenario questions cross sections) or that no bullet claims; they count for the topic, not for a bullet.
Marks a paper, year by year
Grey years are the previous syllabus (2010–2022, 178 questions) — history, not counted in the rates.
By exam series
- Feb/Mar4/4 · 18.8 mk
- May/Jun12/12 · 20.7 mk
- Oct/Nov9/9 · 28.4 mk
What you need to know5syllabus §3.1, §3.2, §3.3, §3.4
- 3.1Computer architecture — role of the CPU and the microprocessor; Von Neumann components (ALU, CU, PC, MAR, MDR, CIR, ACC, address/data/control buses); the fetch–decode–execute cycle
- 3.1CPU performance and embedded systems — cores, cache and clock speed; the instruction set; purpose and characteristics of embedded systems and where they are used
- 3.2Input and output devices — input devices (scanners, camera, keyboard, microphone, mouse, touch screens), output devices (printers, projectors, screens, speakers, actuators) and the 14 sensors
- 3.3Data storage — primary storage (RAM vs ROM), secondary storage (magnetic, optical and solid-state operation), virtual memory, and cloud storage vs local storage
- 3.4Network hardware — the network interface card, MAC addresses, IP addresses (IPv4 vs IPv6, static vs dynamic) and the role of a router
Video lectures43ZAK's YouTube channel · play here
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Infographics3draw these the way the examiner expects · download as PNG
Von Neumann architecture
Fetch–Decode–Execute cycle
Primary, secondary & virtual storage
Key terms17use these exact words in the exam
Dotted terms are defined in the glossary.
Code help2referenced to the Cambridge pseudocode guide
Fetch–decode–execute in register transfer notation
textMAR ← [PC] ; address of next instruction → MAR PC ← [PC] + 1 ; ready for the next fetch MDR ← [[MAR]] ; contents of that address → MDR CIR ← [MDR] ; instruction → CIR ; decode in the CU, then execute (ALU / registers / memory)
💡 Not on the 2210 exam as RTN, but memorising it makes the FDE description questions easy.
DECLARE ACC, MDR : INTEGERACC ← 5 // value already in the accumulatorMDR ← 7 // value fetched from memoryACC ← ACC + MDROUTPUT "ACC = ", ACC
Playground examples1runnable program for this topic
- Run
Fetch–decode–execute simulator
A tiny CPU: PC and ACC registers, instructions in memory, one loop that fetches, decodes with CASE and executes.
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